Electrical and electrochemical sensors based on carbon nanotubes for the monitoring of chemicals in water—a review

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) combine high electrical conductivity with high surface area and chemical stability, which makes them very promising for chemical sensing. While water quality monitoring has particularly strong societal and environmental impacts, a lot of critical sensing needs remain unmet by commercial technologies. In the present review, we show across 20 water monitoring analytes and 90 references that carbon nanotube-based electrochemical sensors, chemistors and field-effect transistors (chemFET) can meet these needs. A set of 126 additional references provide context and supporting information. After introducing water quality monitoring challenges, the general operation and fabrication principles of CNT water quality sensors are summarized. They are sorted by target analytes (pH, micronutrients and metal ions, nitrogen, hardness, dissolved oxygen, disinfectants, sulfur and miscellaneous) and compared in terms of performances (limit of detection, sensitivity and detection range) and functionalization strategies. For each analyte, the references with best performances are discussed. Overall, the most frequently investigated analytes are H+ (pH) and lead (with 18% of references each), then cadmium (14%) and nitrite (11%). Micronutrients and toxic metals cover 40% of all references. Electrochemical sensors (73%) have been more investigated than chemistors (14%) or FETs (12%). Limits of detection in the ppt range have been reached, for instance Cu(II) detection with a liquid-gated chemFET using SWCNT functionalized with peptide-enhanced polyaniline or Pb(II) detection with stripping voltammetry using MWCNT functionalized with ionic liquid-dithizone based bucky-gel. The large majority of reports address functionalized CNTs (82%) instead of pristine or carboxyl-functionalized CNTs. For analytes where comparison is possible, FET-based and electrochemical transduction yield better performances than chemistors (Cu(II), Hg(II), Ca(II), H2O2); non-functionalized CNTs may yield better performances than functionalized ones (Zn(II), pH and chlorine).