Simulating generic agrivoltaic systems with ORCHIDEE: Model development and multi-case study insights

Agrivoltaics (AVs) has emerged as a promising solution to address the competing demands for land, energy, and food production within the Water-Energy-Food-Ecosystem (WEFE) nexus. However, its effects depend on climate, crops and local conditions, requiring large-scale models capable of capturing these variations. For this purpose, our study introduces a new regional-scale AV model, at the interface with regional climate models and the Organizing Carbon and Hydrology In Dynamic Ecosystems (ORCHIDEE) land surface model, to explore the interactions between climate, AV systems and crops within the WEFE nexus. The model is applied to two AV configurations across three distinct climates (dry, wet, and climatological) over the Iberian Peninsula and The Netherlands, using two generic crop types. The results reveal that in arid regions with high solar radiation, such as in the southern Iberian Peninsula, AV systems offer many advantages, particularly in dry years: increased crop productivity, enhanced food security and better use of water and land, while producing renewable energy. In contrast, in The Netherlands, characterized by abundant rainfall and lower solar radiation, AV systems tend to reduce crop productivity, and the gains in terms of water and land use are less marked. These findings highlight the model ability to assess AV systems by capturing regional specificity and varying responses to different climatic contexts. They suggest that optimizing AV system designs involves a nuanced approach, carefully balancing the synergies across energy production, agricultural productivity, and resource use while managing the trade-offs inherent to different climatic conditions.