Theoretical ion sputtering yields from loose powders using a multiscale Monte Carlo approach

Ion sputtering from loose powders remains poorly understood despite its relevance to planetary science and industry. We developed a multiscale Monte Carlo model to simulate sputtering from powders, using a higher-fidelity approach for the target geometry compared to voxel-based methods. Simulating Kr⁺ ions impacting Cu powders and flat slabs, we show that sputtering from loose powders differs markedly from that of flat slabs or rough surfaces. The main differences are: (1) for incident angles α > 0° relative to the bulk normal, the escaping sputtering yield is dominated by backward-directed ejecta for all ion energies; (2) for α ≤ 60°, the yield peaks toward the ion-beam origin, similar to the opposition effect seen in optical observations of airless bodies; (3) the angular distribution peak is half or less than that of a flat slab; (4) as ion energy increases, no evolution occurs from primary to secondary knock-on sputtering in the ejecta angular distribution. We attribute these behaviors to the powder's interconnected voids. Ions penetrate these voids and sputter underlying grains; the ejecta then preferentially escape toward the ion-beam origin, where shadowing is minimal. We derive two fitting functions: (1) relating the escaping sputtering yield of a powder to that of a flat surface, depending only on porosity, incident angle, mean local incidence angle, and the corresponding flat slab yield; (2) providing the double-differential angular distribution of the escaping ejecta for porosities ≥0.49. These provide a potentially universal fitting function of the absolute doubly differential escaping sputtering yield from loose powders.